The Media In India Media Essay

The Media In India Media Essay Looking at the history of news coverage of the war and internal crisis situation, it is quite evident that the news from the area of operation has always interested the mankind. Media these days has now assumed a status which it had seldom enjoyed earlier. Starting as an institutionalized approach to generate awareness and inform masses, media has become an instrument to govern our lives. A close scrutiny and study of Mahabharata would expose to us the nuances of battle that went on between the two adversaries and till date it remains a great testimony to what the quality of battlefield reporting analyses was during the epic period in India. If we were to identify a war correspondent in correspondingly modern India, possibly William Howard Russells name could be the first one to be cited as he reported upon the first war of independence in India in 1857.The coverage of the war and internal crisis in present day scenario has taken an interesting turn with the near real time to live co verage of the events showing pictures from the crisis zone instantly. Media has been playing a vital link to the rest of India on the ongoing insurgency/militancy in Kashmir and North East. Media coverage took an upward surge almost nearing a deluge during the Kargil conflict. Twenty four into seven channels began churning the battlefield in a hunt for not only the latest stories but a series of stories eclipsing the previous one thereby arousing public interest and forming opinions. Never had there been so much support to the war effort in the recent history as was evident during the Kargil conflict. Why did it happen the way it did-did media play a role in it? Do we expect the media to be as supportive during future operations as it was during Kargil? Would the part of media that is controlled and financed by people from outside the country continue to play the ball the way it did during the Kargil conflict? Today, the images of war, for that matter peace, can decisively draw the contours of a nations public opinion even before the authorities can confirm or repudiate the authenticity. Therefore, it is all the more essential to critically analyse the role media can pl ay and how best can it be optimized without compromising any of its essential elements. Press council of India 1. Press Council is a mechanism for the pres to regulate itself. The raison detre of this unique institution is rooted in the concept that in a democratic society the press needs at once to be free and reasonable. If the press is to function effectively as the watchdog of public interest, it must have a secure freedom of expression, unfettered and unhindered by any authority, organised body or individuals. But, this claim to press freedom has legitimacy only if it is exercised with due sense of responsibility. The press must therefore scrupulously adhere to accepted norms of journalistic ethics and maintain high standard of professional conduct. Where the norms are breached and freedom is defiled by unprofessional conduct, a way must exist to check and control it. But, control by government or official authorities may prove destructive of this freedom. Therefore, the best way is to let peers of the profession, assisted by a few discerning layman to regulate it through a properly stru ctured representative impartial machinery. Hence, the Press Council. 2. The Press Council of India was first set up in the year 1966 by the Parliament on the recommendations of the First Press Commission with the objective of preserving the freedom of the press and of maintaining and improving the standards of press in India. The present Council functions under the Press Council Act 1978. It adjudicates the complaints against and by the press for violation of ethics and for violation of the freedom of the press respectively. The Press Council is headed by a chairman, who has by convention, been a retired judge of Supreme Court of India. The council consists of 28 other members of whom 20 represent the press and are nominated by the press organisation/news agencies recognised and notified by the Council as all India bodies of categories such as editors, working journalists and owners and managers of newspaper, five members are nominated from the two houses of the Parliament and represent cultural, literary and legal fields as nominees of Sahitya Academ y, University Grant Commission and Bar Council of India. The members serve on the Council for a term of three years. The Council was last reconstituted on May 22, 2001. The Press Council of India has the following function:- To help the newspaper to maintain their independence. (ii) Medium of Media Role of Media 2. Role of media is that of mediation between the government and the people of the nation. Due to its responsibilities, media is the fourth pillar of the democratic India. After 63 years of achieving independence and quest towards becoming number one power of the world by 2020 through economic growth, the role of media is somewhat uncertain and putting a question mark on the Indian journalism. Before moving ahead we need to ask ourselves and think as to is Indian media playing the role for what it has been known that is the fourth pillar of the state? If not then what role media should play? The obvious answer to this question is that the media should be fair, reliable, impartial, accurate analysis/reporting and work in an integrated manner towards the overall benefit of the people of the nation. As far as news is concerned, media should analyse the news in a very rigid manner, how it has happened and what is the very existence of the news to go to the root cause of the problem inste ad of being biased to any facts and figures available of hand or floated by anybody. But the fact remains very often rather going deep into any problem, journalists are blindly accepting the news as truth which is being formulated and carefully manipulated by the evil elements and disseminate the same publicly. Well, the entire community of journalist s cannot be placed under suspicious category for the inappropriate reporting or misdeeds of few journalists. 3. Medias basic role is to inform, influence, entertain and help develop economy of state which involves news evaluation, analysis and assessment and finally dissemination. Newspapers have a dual role; it is a quasi public institution and a free enterprise and same holds good for the electronic media also. However when the media overlooks its responsibility to the people of a nation and lays more emphasis on being free enterprise that is the problem starts. Another problem is what news is worthy and what is not, and most important is what news need not be published or broadcasted is decided by whom? The journalist is neither to be considered as a detective nor a historian but as mediator in conveying its readers all about the event. Major General Winant Sidle of the US Army says, The appropriate media role in relation to the government has been summarised aptly as being neither a lap dog nor an attack dog but, rather, a watch dog. Apart from acquisition, interpretation and disseminat ion of news, role of media can be summarised as; to create public opinion and attitudes, act as watch-dog for citizens in terms of human rights issues and abuses by institution of power, inform public with events that are balanced and finally maintain national morale by responsible news coverage. The Constitution of India and Press Freedom 4. The Constitution of India, specifically in the chapter on Fundamental Rights, surprisingly, does not mention freedom of press. Later on, Dr. Ambedkar however had mentioned that being part of the guarantees of Freedom of Speech and Expression in Article 19 (1) (a) of the constitution it was not necessary to stipulate the freedom of press separately. Freedom of expression as mentioned in the Constitution implies all forms of opinions, thoughts, ideas and conviction and thus covers most of what is needed for the freedom of press. Censorship is no way covered in any provisions of the Indian constitutions. However during an emergency under the Indian Constitution, Fundamental Rights including Freedom of Expression and Speech stands suspended. The Article 19 (2) of the Constitution of India states that the freedom of the press can be restricted for reasons of sovereignty and integrity of India, preserving democracy and the security of the state, besides some other contingencies. 5. Freedom of the media in actual facts is tempered by hard ground realities such as power and influence of the ownership on editorial policies, commercial orientation of the media, government control over key resources such as newsprint, communications and advertisements. Very often media misuses the freedom given to it and it is evident from a number of issues. Media these days are more engaged in dramatization of an event or news rather than reflecting the informative part. More often, unnecessarily intruding into private lives/personal matters of the people and especially focussing on the distress victims and their families. Media has been in highlight for being involved in corrupt practices and favouring the publishers, political parties, business houses, religious institutions to name a few. Biased publishing, journalist and editor block some news while highlighting others for the reasons of there own. There have been instances where media play up regional emotions leading to s trong appeal and wide spread commotion. During reportage of war or any operations related to internal crisis situation, many a times media has show immaturity and is irresponsible in its reporting by sensationalizing and escalating the conflict. Police, politician and corporate can still be considered for double standards, but how can we expect the same standards from our journalist community. When one pillar collapses, the whole building is likely to fall down. Media being the fourth pillar need to be strong enough in breaking the ice and put forward news and make the truth distinct from ambiguous or falsehood which will entail death of social evil and the people of the nation and the state itself will live in peace. This is the responsibility than needs to be understood and taken up by the Indian journalism. Now, how they are going to shape, direct and lead the new generation of India towards to a peaceful nation as a whole is matter of time and the self awakening. Media ethics 6. Media both print and more so the electronic media plays an important catalyst in shaping the public opinions, sentiments and dogmas by promulgating accurate and desirable information and knowledge. Due to the vast intrusion of television news in public life, it has the power and can create an enduring impact on society, culture and security of a region. These days media is generally facing a qualitative crisis pertaining to the news disseminated by it and it seems as the news channels in India have their respective doctrine charted out presenting anything as news which leads to an departure from the ethical issues of journalism. They have metamorphosed themselves towards packaging of information and have adopted a policy of corporate culture wherein their basic motto has transformed from disseminating information to earning television rating points. With numerous news channels being beamed to our houses the thirst for the actual news by the public is not met due to lack of content , quality and authenticity which have deteriorated over a period of time. Electronic media in India has been irresponsible in presenting news and sensitizing crucial events without understanding and realising the impact and implications on the people and security of the nation. Investigative journalism is the in thing now where in the channels has become a self proclaimed investigating agency which to some extent is instrumental in bringing out the truth but slowly the channels are being used as a means of personal vendetta or gains by insiders as well as outsiders. 7. Media used to be known as the voice of common people and a medium to grab knowledge of the world. Media had over a period of time had built some ethics which was appreciated but with the rapid development, mushrooming of news agencies and requirement of growth it is loosing its credibility. Print media compared to electronic media was known for its accuracy and its ethics and with passage of time everything has become part of marketing and news turned into commodity. The so called free media talks the language of the agencies they are benefited from. The ethics which is being talked about is what should be written or shown and what shouldnt be. The overall aim should to add to society, nation building for a better tomorrow. Contrary to this, media coverage includes matters which are of no use to the citizen but surely for their own mileage. News is supposed to connect the world and not a soap opera in which media ethics, duties and purpose is lost. Reach of mass media 8. It is important for a country like ours to know the capabilities of available mass media facilities, readership, listener ship and viewer ship habits of the people to gauge the reach of media. But do we know when it comes to the reach of various mass media individually and in combination among the diverse population in the country. There many question which arises like how many in the country are exposed to or read newspaper, view television, listen to radio, surf internet, etc? Which one of the available media and how frequently? How many and who all read more than one newspaper, which one and where in India? During what period of the day and how frequently do the people watch TV and listen to radio? What is the duplication/overlap of programmes between different media and many more intricate questions like such will determine the influence the media will create in the people of a nation and gauge its reach. 9. In the year 2006, National Readership was carried out in India which is considered the largest survey of its kind in the world, with samples from 2,84,373 house interviews to measure the media penetration and exposure in both urban and rural India and obviously the readership of publications. According to the survey, today average urban adult is spending 44 minutes per day reading magazines and dailies. Readership of dailies continue to grow as compared to the previous year however there is a decline in magazine readership both in urban and rural India. Satellite television has grown in leaps and bound and has a considerable reach: TV now reaches 112 million Indian homes. Internet has also spread predominantly with a reach now exceeding 12 millions. Resurgence of radio cannot be ignored as its reach has increased to 27% of the population tuning in to any radio station in the average week, almost equaling the number of readers. This boom in media reach and penetration will play a v ital role towards national perception and national security as such. Media Ownership and control in India 10. In February 1995 in a landmark judgement, Supreme Court of India ruled that the airwaves are public property and no longer under government control. In 1996 a Broadcasting bill was formulated and an autonomous Broadcasting Authority was vested with regulatory powers. The ministry of information and broadcasting in June 1998 allowed private Indian satellite channels to uplink from India. With the media being liberalised entry of foreign media was eminent, now the question which comes to mind is; do foreign media impact the policy decisions, a tool of cultural imperialism, western business and foreign policy interest in turn hampering national security. The positive side may be in favours of foreign media on the ground of plurality, competition and readers right to know. Their influence will mould the perception of the population as they wield through their agenda. 11. It is very interesting to know as to who controls the various media entity in India and obviously it will stem out from the ownership. A very popular news channel NDTV, is funded by gospels of charity in Spain which supports communism. CEO of this company is Prannoy Roy who is related to Prakash karat, the General Secretary of communist party of India. CNN-IBN is funded by Southern Baptist Church with its branches all over the world with its HQ in US. Times Group which includes Times of India, Mid-Day, Nav Bharat Times, Stardust, Femina, Times Now (TV news channel) and many more is owned by Benet and Coleman. Star TV is managed by an Australian, who is supported by St. Peters Pontifical Church, Melbourne. Birla Group owned Hindustan Times have changed hands which is presently owned by Shobhana Bharatiya and working in collaboration with the Times Group. English daily, The Hindu started over 125 years has been taken over by Josua Society, Berne, Switzerland. The Indian express in which ACTS Christian Ministries have a major stake. There are many other regional news print who are privately owned by Indians which have more reach and impact in the rural, semi-urban and to some extent urban population. Regional TV network like Enadu is controlled by Ramoji Rao who has connection in the film industry. 12. The ownership explains the control of media in India by external agencies be it foreigner or Indian. The news will be biased by their owners and the product that filters down to the common man will distort. The result is obvious; we are going to be fed with tailor made news by the companies who are holding the strings. Media responsibility 13. Freedom of press might have potential unintended effect while engaged in the internal crisis situation especially when considering modern media as a force multiplier. Many a times the media is in an awkward position when it is covering terrorist events. Medias role to protect the societys right to know comes in direct conflict with the states (military, law enforcement and investigating agencies) mission is to protect and serve, and maintain order when covering internal crisis situations. The precarious balancing act that the press faces while covering terrorist incidents is like having censorship on one side of the weigh scale and freedom on the other side. During internal crisis situations, press needs to be always vigilant about balancing their freedom relating protecting the peoples right to know against their responsibility to play a constructive role. The more the freedom and accuracy goes into reporting, the more the coverage favours the terrorists and vice versa. Issues f acing the governments and media outlets before, during and after a terrorist incident need to be closely examined by both the agencies towards dissemination of information which will strike a balance. The terrorist and governments agendas tend to dramatically oppose, while the media position is often judgment call. Media is a force multiplier stuck in between complete censorship and total freedom of the press. It is important that the media continues to play a constructive role during times of local and national crisis but it is also critical that the media be allowed to continue to provide a counterbalance.

Criminology DNA Forensic Science Essay

We begin life as a single cell zygote, about 0. 1mm in diameter. The numerous biological instructions that enable our developmental and functional processes to occur from zygote to adult are encoded in the deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). Forensic DNA analysis involves the intersection of several scientific disciplines, including molecular biology, genetics, and statistical analysis (Lynch, 2013). In order to understand the usefulness and the limitations of DNA in the analysis of physical evidence, it is important to be familiar with the basics principles underlying these diverse disciplines. Besides identical twins, each individual’s DNA is unique. After all it is the genetic material that contains all the information necessary for any organism to develop and function. However, only a one-half percent that is of interest to forensics scientists. This is the portion that varies greatly between individuals and it is what manifests itself in the individual traits such as eye color, hair color, and blood type. Most often the differences in DNA sequence do not show themselves in physical appearance; however, these sequences can only be examined using special laboratory techniques. Forensic scientists use these genetic differences from DNA to distinguish an individual between the individuals in a population. In 1944 Oswald Avery defined the role of the cellular component known as DNA as the vehicle of generational transference of heritable traits. In 1953, James Watson and Francis Crick elucidated the structure of the DNA molecule as a double helix. Form follows function; the very nature of the molecule provided an explanation for its unique properties (Berg, Tymoczko, Stryer, Gatto & Gatto, 2012). In 1980, David Botstein and coworkers were the first to exploit the small variations found between people at the genetic level as landmarks to construct a human gene map. In 1984, while searching for disease markers in DNA Alec Jeffreys discovered the science of personal identification. He termed this method DNA Fingerprinting, a method to detect loci sequentially (Alberts, Johnson & et al, 2008). This term is later replaced by DNA typing or DNA profiling, â€Å"Early in the use of DNA, profiles for the purpose of dentification were called DNA fingerprints, a term which is now rarely used† (Porter, 2005). The first forensic use of DNA occurred in England, â€Å"†¦ a DNA test was performed by Dr. Alex Jeffreys, who had developed DNA ‘fingerprinting† (Porter, 2005). One of the most significant facts of the case is that an innocent suspect was the first accused of the murder was freed based on the DNA evidence. Perhaps the most significant scientific advance bes ides the determination of the structure of DNA was in 1986 the polymerase chain reaction (PCR). PCR multiplies the sample and yields results which were once unobtainable, â€Å"Furthermore, the statistical chances of a random coincidence in DNA of two individuals with the same profile have now reached enormous figures in the billions (Porter, 2005). Observation of cells and embryos in the late 19th century had led to the recognition that the hereditary information is carried on chromosomes, â€Å"thread-like structures in the nucleus of a eukaryotic cell that became visible by light microscopy as the cell begins to divide† (Alberts, Johnson & et al, 2008). As biochemical analysis became possible, chromosomes were found to consist of both DNA and protein. DNA is the name given to a group of molecules that occur in all cells of all living organisms and that carry that organism’s genetic information. That, is they carry the instructions for making the chemical compounds, proteins, by which cells stay alive, grow, develop, reproduce, and carry out all the functions that constitute life as we know it. DNA molecules are very large, complex molecules made of only a few simple sugar units combined with a phosphate group and one of four nitrogen bases, adenine A, cytosine C, guanine G, and thymine T (Alberts, Johnson & et al, 2008). The combination of one sugar molecule, one phosphate group and any on nitrogen base is called a nucleotide. A complete DNA molecule consists of very long chains of thousands of nucleotides joined together. The DNA molecule is comprised of two strands each wrapped around the other in the form of a double-helix. The bases on each strand are properly aligned in a manner known as complementary-base pairing. As a result, adenine pairs with thymine and guanine pairs with cytosine. Each gene is actually composed of DNA specifically designed to carry the task of controlling the genetic traits of our cells. The position a gene occupies on a chromosome in known as a locus. Approximately 30,000 human genes have been identified. DNA duplicates itself prior to cell division. DNA replication begins with the unwinding of the DNA strands of the double helix (Berg, Tymoczko, Stryer, Gatto & Gatto, 2012). The two separate strands, now separated, act like a template for the formation of daughter strands. Each strand is now exposed to a collection of free nucleotides that will be used to recreate the double helix using base pairing. The enzyme DNA polymerase catalyzes the sequential addition of nucleotides to the growing DNA strands. The advent of DNA technology has dramatically altered the approach of forensic scientists toward the individualization of bloodstains and other biological factors as evidence. The high sensitivity of DNA analysis and the subsequent search for DNA evidence has even altered the types of materials collected from crime scenes. Saferstein, 2013) Modern methods of obtaining DNA have made it possible to obtain convictions on blood left at the scene, on semen, or even spittle behind on a postage stamp. â€Å"It is surprising how often DNA is left behind, often when the criminal accidently cuts himself at the scene but also numerous other ways. DNA evidence makes detection of crime more probable† (Porter, 2005). During an investigation, forensic evidence is collected at a crime scene, analyzed in a laboratory and often presented in court. Each crime scene is unique, and each case presents its own challenges. Complex cases may require the collection, examination and analysis of a large amount of evidence. In terms of forensic DNA analysis, there is a variety of possible sources of DNA evidence. The more useful sources include blood, semen, vaginal fluid, nasal secretions and hair with roots. It is theoretically possible to obtain DNA from evidence such as urine, feces and dead skin cells, though this is often classed as a poor source due to the lack of intact cells and high levels of contaminants preventing successful analysis. Prior to analysis, the it will be necessary to extract DNA from the sample. This is generally achieved through the following simplified steps. The sample cells are lysed (broken down) in a buffer solution. Denatured proteins and fats are pelleted through centrifugation. The cleared lysate is then passed through a column, often containing a positively charged medium that binds to the DNA. Contaminating proteins, fats and salts are then removed through several washes. The DNA is recovered in a buffer solution (Rankin, 2005-2013). The use of DNA analysis in forensic science is based on a variety of techniques focusing on polymorphisms. â€Å"Different sequences are studied in different techniques, including single nucleotide polymorphisms, mini satellites (variable number tandem repeats), microsatellites (short tandem repeats) and mitochondrial DNA, each different with regards to length and repetition (Rankin, 2005-2013)†. The latest method of DNA typing, short tandem repeat (STR) analysis has emerged as the most successful and widely used DNA profiling procedure. Generally, â€Å"DNA extraction is the first step in forensic DNA analysis for use in human identification, and is essential to generating STR profiles from forensic biological samples (Lounsbury, Coult, Miranian, Cronk, Haverstick, Kinnon, Saul & Landers, 2012)†. STRs are locations on the chromosome that contain short tandem repeats that repeat themselves within the DNA molecule. They express a high degree of polymorphism, making them of particular use to the forensic scientist. As STR regions are non-coding, there is no selective pressure against the high mutation rate, resulting in high variation between different people (Saferstein, 2013). Though there have been thousands of short tandem repeats found in the human genome, only a small number are utilized in forensic DNA analysis. STR loci are ideal for use in forensic science for a number of reasons. They represent†¦ â€Å"discrete alleles that are distinguishable from one another, they show a great power of discrimination, only a small amount of sample is required due to the short length of STRs, PCR amplification is robust and multiple PCR can be used, and there are low levels of artifact formation during amplification (Rankin, 2005-2013)†. The method of enzyme based produced PCR-ready DNA after only 20 minute incubation and requires no centrifugation or sample transfer steps. Implementation of this method into the workflow for forensic cases could reduce sample and DNA preparation time. The enzyme based method allows easy integration for downstream processes, such as PCR (Lounsbury, Coult, Miranian, Cronk, Haverstick, Kinnon, Saul & Landers, 2012). Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is a technique for replicating small quantities of DNA or broken pieces of DNA found at a crime scene, outside a living cell. Polymerase chain reaction is the outgrowth of knowledge gained from an understanding of how DNA strands naturally replicate within a cell. For the forensic scientist, PCR offers a distinct advantage in that it can amplify minute quantities of DNA many millions of times (Saferstein, 2013). The PCR cycle consists of three primary steps: denaturation, annealing and extension. â€Å"Denaturation, the sample is heated to 94-95oC for about 30 seconds. This separates the double-stranded DNA by breaking hydrogen bonds, allowing primers access. Annealing, the samples is kept at 50-65oC, depending on the primer sequence, to allow hydrogen bonds to form between the primers and the complementary DNA sequence. Extension is also known as the elongation stage. The sample is heated to 72oC for duration depending on the length of the DNA strand to be amplified and the speed of the polymerase enzyme (Taq polymerase) which builds up the strand. Deoxynucleotide triphosphates are added to the 3’ end of the primer (Rankin, 2005-2013)†. Each PCR cycle can take only 5 minutes. This procedure can then be repeated as necessary until the original sequence has been amplified a sufficient amount of time, with the amount being doubled with each cycle. Following PCR, the products are separated using electrophoresis. Electrophoresis is essentially a method of separating molecules by their size through the application of an electric field, causing molecules to migrate at a rate and distance dependent on their size. The gel essentially acts as a type of molecular sieve, allowing smaller molecules to travel faster than larger fragments. Following electrophoresis, it may be necessary to visualize these bands using radioactive or fluorescent probes or dyes (Berg, Tymoczko, Stryer, Gatto & Gatto, 2012). Another type of DNA used for individual characterization is mitochondrial DNA. Mitochondrial DNA (mDNA) is located outside the cell’s nucleus and is inherited from the mother (Saferstein, 2013). Recent developments in forensic mRNA profiling systems have allowed the simultaneous inference of a variety of human cell types from small amounts of samples. In addition to body fluids such as blood, semen, saliva, menstrual secretion and vaginal mucosa, the presence of skin cells can also be determined. Since more cell types can be examined, RNA profiling complements the existing detection methods of body fluids which are mainly serology-based and presumptive in nature. In forensic genetic analyses, â€Å"†¦the highest priority often goes to establishing the possible contributor(s) of DNA to an evidentiary trace. As a consequence, RNA profiling is incorporated into a DNA/RNA coassessment strategy that generates both a DNA and an mRNA profile from the same stain (Lindenbergh, Maaskant & Sijen, 2012)†. Mitochondrial DNA is generally used when other methods such as STR analysis have failed. This is often in the case of badly degraded bodies, in cases of disaster or accidents where an individual is too badly damaged to identify. The most significant advantage of the use of mitochondrial DNA is the possibility of analyzing even highly degraded samples. If a specimen is severely decomposed to the point that it is not possible to successfully extract a DNA profile using nuclear DNA, it may be possible through mitochondrial DNA. However the use of mDNA does have its disadvantages. As mitochondrial DNA is only maternally inherited, this cannot form a full DNA fingerprint of the individual, thus this technique is only beneficial if the DNA profiles of maternal relatives are available, such as the individuals mother or biological siblings (National Institute of Justice, 2012). Possibly the most momentous device to arise from DNA typing is the ability to compare DNA types recovered from crime scene evidence to those of convicted sex offenders and other convicted criminals (Lynch, 2013). Numerous countries have produced computerized databases containing DNA profiles to aid in the comparison of DNA fingerprints and the identification of suspects and victims. The first Government DNA database was established in the United Kingdom in April 1995, known as the National DNA Database (NDNAD). As of 2011, there were over 5. million profiles of individuals in the system. Similarly, the FBI in the US formed their own DNA database, the Combined DNA Index System (CODIS), in 1994, though it was not implemented in all states until 1998(Saferstein, 2013). Staff members involved in the handling and analysis of evidence will often also submit their DNA profiles to the database in the case of accidental contamination. There is the possibility for DNA databases to be shared be tween countries; however some countries focus on different loci in DNA fingerprinting. Currently, U. S. crime laboratories have standardized on 13 STRs for entry into a national database (CODIS). Currently, DNA evidence is treated as exceptional, but it also is upheld as a model for other forms of forensic evidence to emulate. Many terms, such as investigation, inquiry, argument, evidence, and fact were established in law well before being associated with science. However, while legal proof remained qualified by standards of moral certainty, scientific proof attained a reputation for objectivity (Lynch, 2013). Although most forms of legal evidence, including expert evidence, continue to be treated as fallible opinions rather than objective facts, forensic DNA evidence increasingly is being granted an exceptional factual status. It did not always enjoy such status. Two decades ago, the scientific status of forensic DNA evidence was challenged in the scientific literature and in courts of law, but by the late 1990s it was being granted exceptional legal status. DNA profiling is often treated as an exceptional technique that has navigated the imaginary gulf between forensic and scientific culture, and has become so reliable that it can be used as a benchmark for evaluating all other forensic technologies. The STR system replaced the earlier systems, and automated scanning of samples replaced visual examination of profile results. The use of all these genetic tools allows forensic scientists to with more certainty find and convict criminals.

Future Law Enforcement Weapons Essay

Everyday technology is taking advances in all fields of work forces, Especially Law Enforcement. Todays as well as future technology will make the jobs of those in the military and law enforcement easier as well as safer. As technology is breaking through, amendments 4 and 8 in the constitution need to be taken in consideration. The technologies may not be used to punish, and if it is searching equipment, a warrant is needed unless it will be used for sudden reasons of safety. In the future, instead of a normal squad car, someone might see a bulletproof truck. What is cool about it is that, they are strictly for the safety of police officers; they do not need to worry about a warrant, or hurting someone. This tool in the future would save officers lives. The bulletproof trucks are crash resistant/ damage resistant, during a high speed chase, and can possible handle a small missile fire. The portable radar system is a lightweight tool that sees through walls. This tool also promotes officer safety, it allows a building to be searched from the outside, detecting anything potentially dangerous on the inside. The officer would not have a problem with the 8th Amendment, this tool is not a weapon, it cannot be used to punish, restrain, or temporarily injure a suspect in anyway. Although the 4th Amendment would be needed to in consideration, because it is a tool that may be used to search private property. In order for Law enforcement to search another person’s property, a warrant is needed; it does not matter if the officers are searching from the inside or the outside, in this case the outside. Only when the safety of a person is threatened, may Law Enforcement use this tool without a warrant. The grill mount Launcher, is a tool that attaches to the vehicle, and it allows the police officer to shoot a GPS system onto another vehicle to track. This tool would be useful during a high speed chase; the suspect could get away, but completely unaware that their vehicle had a GPS that was tracking them. The Grill mount Launcher is strictly a tracking system; it does not violate the 4th or 8th Amendments. This tool does not having searching abilities, or the potential to hurt anybody. The officer should be free to use this tool any time a situation calls for it. The strobe lamp is a handheld tool with extremely bright lights, which causes temporary blindness. This tool promotes citizen safety, this tool is not a deadly weapon, it does not have a potential danger for a by-stander; In addition this tool most likely not kill the suspect, the strobe lamp provides alternate options for a police officer to take someone into custody, other than a gun, or handcuffs. This tool could not possibly violate the 4th amendment. A weapon is any device used for attack or defense against an opponent. Since the strobe lamp does cause pain, and the suspect to temporarily lose their vision, it is considered a weapon, which means an officer has to follow the 8thamendment. A Law Enforcement officer cannot use this weapon on a suspect because they deserve it, only may this tool be used, if the suspect is posing an immediate threat on the officer or another person. The Automatic License Plate Recognition Device allows police officer to check thousands of license plates, to determine if vehicles are stolen, if registered owners are wanted, if driver’s licenses are expired or revoked. The system also takes a picture of the car license plate and registers the code into a database. This tool allows the officer possibly find the name and history of the suspect easily. This tool is similar to the grill Mount Launcher GPS as far as tracking the suspect. This tool has no relation to the 4th and the 8th amendments, it does not harm, and it is only for Law Enforcement benefit only. Most of today’s Law enforcement technology does have to be used carefully, in order to avoid problems with Amendments of the Constitution, but ultimately they provide non-lethal weapon options to use on suspects, citizen safety, in addition to Police Officer safety,

Spanish Verbs Related to Tener

Tener is one of many verbs in Spanish that can be combined with several prefixes to form new verbs. Although tener doesnt have a cognate (an equivalent word with a common ancestor) in English, the verbs derived from it do, and they are among the English verbs ending in -tain. Thus detener has the same origin as the English detain, mantener is related to maintain, and so on. But just because Englishs -tain words are related to Spanishs -tener verbs doesnt mean that they are exact matches. For example, detener and retener are often interchangeable in Spanish as their meanings can be quite similar, but the English verbs are less likely to be used synonymously. Similarly, the meanings of to hold something up and to defend a viewpoint can both be expressed in Spanish with sostener and mantener, while the English verbs tend to have less overlap in meaning. The Nine Verbs Here are the nine most common Spanish verbs derived from tener along with some of their most usual meanings and sample sentences: Abstener Abstener is usually used in its reflexive form abstenerse and typically means to deliberately refrain from something. It is usually followed by de. Mi padre tiene que abstenerse del alcohol. (My father has to abstain from alcohol.)Me abstengo de pensar en las cosas malas que han pasado. (I refuse to think about the bad things that have happened.)El presidente fue interrumpido por su abogado para que abstuviera de atacar a su rival polà ­tica. (The president was interrupted by lawyer so that he would keep from attacking his political rival. Atener Atener refers to keeping within some figurative boundaries, such as by heeding instructions or obeying the law. In more general usage, it can refer to merely paying attention to or dealing with a situation. As in the first two examples below, it is often used in the reflexive. Es importante que nos atenemos la ley. (It is important that we obey the law.)Pero no puedo atenerme a ella todo el tiempo. (I cant attend myself to her all the time.)Las autoridades no atienen el problema. (The authorities arent dealing with the problem.) Contener Contener has two categories of meaning: to control or restrain, and to contain or include. La jarra contiene dos litros. (The jug contains two liters.)Muchas veces  contuvo su enojo. (She often controlled her anger.)Los champà ºs de limpieza profunda contienen un ingrediente à ¡cido como vinagre de manzana. (The deep-cleaning shampoos include a high-acid ingredient such as apple vinegar.) Detener Detener usually means to stop something or detain someone, such as by arresting. La policà ­a detuvo a once personas. (The police arrested eleven people.)Es importante que detengas todo ese caos. (It is important that you stop all this chaos.) Entretener Meanings of entretener include to distract, to entertain, to delay, and to maintain. Se entretuvieron buscando un coche. (They got distracted looking for a car.)No ha entretenido su coche. (He has not maintained his car.)Se entretenà ­a por tocar el piano. (She entertained herself by playing the piano.) Mantener Mantener can refer to maintaining in the broad sense of the word, such as by physically supporting, sustaining, remaining, and keeping. Los precios se mantuvieron estables. (Prices remained stable.)Mantenga limpia Espaà ±a. (Keep Spain clean.)Roberto se mantiene con caramelos. (Roberto keeps himself going with candy.)Se ha mantenido como nuevo. (It has been maintained like new.) Obtener Obtener is the cognate of obtain but is used more informally and frequently than the English word. It is often translated as to get. Obtuve la firma del actor. (I got the actors signature.)Quiere obtener dos archivos de audio. (She wants to get two audio files.) Retener Retener has most of the meanings of to retain, such as to retain, to hold back, to deduct, and to keep. Retenieron el avià ³n presidencial por una deuda. (They held back the presidential plane because of a debt.)Muchas empresas retienen impuestos. (Many businesses deduct taxes.)Retengo en la cabeza todos los lugares que he visto. (I retain in my head every place I have seen.) Sostener Like sustain, sostener refers to supporting something. Los tres bloques sostienen la casa. (The three blocks hold up the house.)No puedo sostener mi opinià ³n. (I cant support  my position.) Related Words Here are some words that are derived from or otherwise related to the above verbs along with some common meanings: abstemio (teetotaler), abstencià ³n (abstention), abstencionismo (abstentionism)contenedor (container), contenido (contents)detencià ³n (arrest, a halt)entretenido (entertaining), entretenimiento (entertainment, pastime)mantenimiento (maintenance, upkeep)obtencià ³n (an obtaining)retencià ³n (detention, deduction, retention)sostà ©n (a support), sostenido (sustained) Conjugation of the ‘-tener’ Verbs All of the verbs based on tener are conjugated irregularly in the same way that tener is. For example, the first-person singular indicative is of tener is tengo, so the same form of the other verbs are abstengo, atengo, contengo, etc.